Aspirin Preparation Case Essay Example for Free

Aspirin Preparation Case Essay * How drugs are discovered and developed Pharmacologist along with chemist focus on a specific disease and unmet patient needs in order to discover new drugs. They search for biological targets within the body that play a role in a given disease. Unique molecules are found or created that some day might be medicines. Lead Compound Selection, is the testing of compounds that might undergo the long expensive drug develop process. Random Screening- uses existing library of chemical agents. This is the simplest method but the odds are low and patience is needed. Combinational Chemistry Screening- uses a compound (from existing library) as a base, then randomly adding amino acids or molecule segments of other agents to the base compound in order to enhance the base compounds activity and disease fighting potential. The enhanced compounds are then tested in rapid screening test. However this method is complex and costly but it improves the odds. Target Synthesis- targets the disease for drug intervention. For example High Blood Pressure would be studied in detail. Consequently this method still requires screening of hundreds of compounds and extensive amount of research to understand a particular disease process. Drug Modeling- uses more high technology. This method manipulates chemical structures by computers so that they can attach to, activate or deactivate proteins that interfere with or maintain the bodys normal functioning. The model is used to enhance the properties of the other methods but the cost for designer compounds are significant because of the huge amount of research that is needed to identify biochemical target and establish their molecular structure. * How safety of drugs is checked before being used on the public A drug undergoes 3 clinical phases before being used on the public. PHASE 1 This is designed to determine the safety of the new drug, how best to administer it and the correct dosage- (one that will minimize desirable side effects). 20-30 patients (volunteers) are used to find out how the drug behaves in their body, so their blood and urine will be frequently monitored. Even though drugs in this will have been already tested in a laboratory. PHASE 2 After the correct dosage has been determined in phase1 clinical trial, it can enter phase2. This trial consists of determining the drugs effectiveness in treating a specific disease. Phase2 involves more patients (volunteers) and they are tested for the number of platelets in their blood and take frequent blood samples. If the drug being tested brings a positive change in at least 1/5 of the patients then it can be tested in phase3. However if the drug shows very positive effects in-patients, the Food and Drug Administration also have the option of approving the drug for general use at this point. PHASE 3 This trial involves hundreds of patients and is divided into two groups. The control group receives a standard treatment (placebo) and the treatment groups are given the new drug. Results are then compared from the two groups. Blinded studies are used to prevent biased study results. If the new successfully passes a phase3 trial the FDA will approve the drug for marketing to the general public. Purification -The acetylsalicylic acid is washed with distilled water until all the acetic acid is removed. -It is pressed to be as dry as possible and then dried more by a current of warm air at 60-70 degrees Celsius. The yield of pure acetylsalicylic acid is between 1780-1795kg per batch using this reaction process. * History of Aspirin and its modern development * How aspirin is prepared on the large scale Main reactor for the process- a glass lined 1500 gallon fitted with a water-cooled reflux condenser, thermometers with automatic temperature register and an efficient agitator. The Mother Liquor- 1532kg of acetic anhydride in 1200kg of toluene (this does not get used up.). The reactor is charged up with the mother liquor. 1382kg of salicylic acid is added to the mother liquor. The reaction mixture is heated to between 85-92 degrees Celsius and kept at this temperature for 20 hours. The reaction mixture is transferred into an aluminum-cooling tank and is allowed to cool for 3-4 days. By the end the cool mixture will have reached room temperature 15-25 degrees Celsius. At this point the acetylsalicylic acid has precipitated as large regular crystals. Mother liquor is removed by filtration or centrifuging. Filtrate solution- 180-270kg of UN-precipitated acetyl acid, 510kg of acetic anhydride, 600kg of acetic acid and 1200kg of toluene. The acetic acid is obtained as a by-product of the acetylation step of the process. An well-agitated reactor using a diffusion plate will introduce Ketene gas, to be passed through the recycled filtrate at a temperature between 15-25 degrees Celsius. When a weight increase of 420.5kg of the Ketene gas is observed, the mother liquor contains 180-270kg of UN-precipitated acetyl acid and 1532kg of acetic anhydride in 1200kg of toluene. The Mother liquor is recycled and 1382kg of Salicylic acid is added to continue the reaction cycle BC- the first and most influential physician wrote about the bitter powder extracted from the willow bark that could ease aches and pains and reduce fever. 1700- The scientist Reverend Edmund Stone found out that the part of the willow tree bark that was bitter and good for fever and pain is a chemical known as Salicin. This converts into another chemical called Salicylic acid when eaten. 1829- A pharmacist known as Leroux showed that Salicin is the active willow ingredient and for the first time an Italian chemist Piria used Salicylic acid to treat pain and swelling in diseases such as Arthritis and to treat fever in illnesses like Influenza. The problem was that these chemicals was causing the users upset stomachs. Some people had bleeding in their digestive tracts from high doses needed to control swelling and pain. It was thought that the reason of stomach upsets were because of the acid in the chemical, therefore the compound Salicylic acid went through a couple of chemical reactions that covered up one of the acidic parts with an ACETYL group, converting it to ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID (ASA). It was found that ASA reduced fever and relieve of pain and swelling but also it was much better for the stomach and worked better than Salicylic Acid. 1899- ASA was given the name ASPIRIN- that comes from the plant relative of a rose that makes SALICYLIC ACID (several plants makes this compound not just willow). * How drugs such as aspirin work Prostaglandin is a chemical that is released to make the nerve ending register an even stronger pain to the brain. It is made in working cells of the damaged tissues by using an enzyme called CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 (COX-2). Prostaglandin makes you feel the pain of the damaged area and causes it to swell up (inflammation), to bathe the tissues in fluid from the blood so that it will protect it and help it heal. Pain serves the purpose here to remind you that the damaged area cannot be used, as it is not healed. However sometimes we endure pain when there is no real reason to. For example Period Pains and Arthritis. It can make people feel really uncomfortable and arthritis can damage joints permanently. ASPIRIN works by locking itself to the enzyme that makes the chemical Prostaglandin. The enzyme C0X-2 that is found in normal tissues but mostly in tissues that have been damaged in some way, can no longer convert floating chemicals into Prostaglandin because they are unable to move with the aspirin lock on. Aspirin does not treat the cause of the pain; it just lowers the pain signals getting through your nerves to the brain. * How effective aspirin is New researches suggest that an aspirin a day is a preventive measure against Heart Attacks. However the effectiveness of aspirin has differential effects depending on genetics.

The Alluring Amontillado Essays -- Literature

The Alluring Amontillado Revenge is the act of retaliation for an offense or injury caused to a person by another. The act of revenge can become an overpowering and consuming emotion that involves every part of someone’s existence. In â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado,† revenge is the theme that runs throughout the story and drives the motive for murder. The character, Montresor, uses revenge as his motive for killing Fortunato. Fortunato is reminiscent of a fatherly character, which elicits painful memories for Montresor. In eliminating Fortunato, Montresor assumes the role that places him closest to the affections of a motherly figure. Edgar Allan Poe’s life is reflective of the motivations of Montresor’s actions and how the Oedipus complex is featured in this short story. Edgar Allan Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1809 to parents who were actors at the local theatre. He never knew his father, David Poe, who died in 1810 after abandoning Poe’s mother shortly after Poe was born. His mother, who suffered from consumption, died in Richmond, Virginia in late 1811, orphaning Edgar, his older brother William Henry, and half-sister Rosalie. Soon after their mother’s death, the children were separated and sent to relatives or other families to be raised. Edgar had very little contact with his siblings after their mother’s death. A planter and his wife, who lived in Richmond Virginia, accepted Poe into their family, but never formally adopted him. From the childless wife of Mr. John Allan, Edgar received extensive affection, but it was improbable that she was ever able to give all the affection that he craved from his deceased birth mother. Mr. Allan regarded Edgar with mute affection and mostly offered money in place of any physi... ... who was forever searching for that one elusive person who could give him the validation he so wanted. He appears to have placed so much value on the affections of a mother who would forever be absent. Montresor, in Poe’s fictional story, was successful in committing the revengeful deed he sought. Fortunato, from his grave, forever haunted the lonesome soul of Montresor. Works Cited May, Charles E. Edgar Allan Poe: A Study of the Short Fiction. Boston: Twayne, 1991. Print. Poe, Edgar. â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado.† The Compact Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing. Ed. Michael Meyer. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2012. 533-537. Print. Pruette, Lorine. "A Psycho-Analytical Study of Edgar Allan Poe." The American Journal of Psychology 31.4 (1920): 370-402. JSTOR. Web. 31 Mar. 2012. .

How to Manage Negativity within the Medical Aesthetics

The vital challenge for managing negative employees nowadays is to stay alive and flourish in a very chaotic globe. To achieve this, the Medical Aesthetics Market Place perceives it essential to keep positive attitudes of its organization. Ethical values, constantly applied, are the foundation in building a commercially victorious and generally responsible business (Barbuceanu & Fox, 1996).   Business organizations progress trust and a positive outlook between its personnel strengthen ethical framework and proffer a moral breadth during times of change and in catastrophe (Grimes & Alley, 1997).Medica Spa owners require positive-productive employees to gain encouraging impact on their clienteles. For this objective, owners and managers endow with greater control over one's manners, build assurance in decision making, and consent to more truthful discernments of one's self. Those issues concern justice, honesty, correctness and an optimistic attitude; as a consequence it can only be resolved according to ethical standards.Decision-making must be empowered to the level adjoining the field of action, on condition that, that this level has compulsory for positive reception from its employees at its clearance (Guest, 1989). A manager is required to make his function wider to increase dynamism, inventiveness and speed of achievement (Barenberg, 1994).Employees in the Medical Aesthetics Market Place are in fact obliged to comply with significantly increased demands in quantity and quality. The movement in the present day is to hire less than sufficient staff and work to the maximum.   Negativity should be restricted to any level of an employee. Operations individuals at present have more duties and must generate more (Ghallab, 1994).Owners are required to entrust a part of its sanctions to the subordinate hierarchical levels, if they do not want to be congested with more and more abundant and multifaceted problems. Delegation is mainly about entrusting an ownerâ₠¬â„¢s authority to others. This denotes that they can take action and begin autonomously; and that they presume duty with owners for tasks. Entrustment underpins a technique of management which allows the staff to exercise and widen their skills and knowledge to full potential (Guest, 1989). To manage negativity of employees, owners must:distribute adequate resources to board activities such as time, money, and facilitiessupport workers and supervisors to collaborate with the committee and be involvedentail the committee in each and every health and safety activitiesfacilitate to schedule committee activities such as investigations as well as inspectionsdivide health and safety matters from concerns not relatedwork and take steps safely and guarantee that supervisors work and take action carefullyTo manage negative employees, managers must be straightforward to the staff to assume their responsibilities, as every now and then it is very at ease to feel oneself protected from all ris ks that are inherent in running an organization’s operations; a desire from the managers must exist to abandon certain prerogatives – for it is a loss of authority – to be able to concentrate on other more significant activities; must be capable of setting up a career promotion and rewards that recompense the efforts of the staff that stimulate them and motivate their activity for the benefit of the group (Ghallab, 1994).   The staff must have enough knowledge on how to do their responsibilities with dedication and positive attitude. Thus, the business owners ought to facilitate access to the required understanding.The owner who fears and cannot organize well will never manage negativity of employees successfully; the manager, who is acquainted with that the staff may possibly have supplementary experience and knowledge, and so may possibly develop the decision-making process, will receive their participation; managing negativity of employees guarantees that t he staff will put decision-making into practice within the organization of their objectives and will sense that their perspectives are welcome. One of the main irrational fears about delegation is that by providing others authority, an owner or manager loses power (Grimes & Alley, 1997). This must not be the case.If the owner trains the staff to take actions the same criteria as the manager would, by example and explanations, then the staff will be exercising the manager’s control on his/her behalf with positive outlook if and only if the manager demonstrates a positive attitude. And since they will distinguish many more circumstances over which control may be put into effect, then control will be exercised more rapidly and more diversely than an owner could put it into effect by his/her self.An owner must be able to distribute the more mundane tasks as equally as possible; and add the more stimulating once as broadly. Generally, but particularly with the tedious tasks, an ow ner must be careful to delegate not only the performance of the mission but also its tenure (Barenberg, 1994). Task handing over, more willingly than task assignment, allows innovation and positive attitude and outlook in their work.To manage negativity within a business,   an owner is supposed to increase progressively; first, a small assignment leading to a little improvement, then another assignment which constructs upon the first; when that is accomplished, add an additional step; and so on. This is the differentiation between asking people to balance a sheer wall (negative), and offering them with a flight of steps (positive).When an owner delegates a job, it does not have to be finished as fit as an owner could do it in a given time, but only as fit as needed: never judge the upshot by what is expected (it is complicated to be objective – negative), but by fitness for positive function. When an owner delegates a task, he/she must agree upon the standards by which the result will be reviewed. An owner must not exaggerate a negative issue; if the staff did something wrong, the owner must have the skill of using specific and positive terms in correcting the mistake – not meaning to hurt the staff’s feelings (Barbuceanu & Fox, 1996).ReferencesBarbuceanu, M. & Fox, M. (1996). The Design of a Coordination Language for Multi-AgentsSystems. In Intelligent Agents III. Agent Theories, Architectures, and Languages.Springer, pp.341-355.Barenberg, M. (1994). Democracy and Domination in the Law of Workplace Cooperation:From Bureaucratic to Flexible Production, 94 Colum. L. Rev. 753, 825–78. Harper,supra note 468, at 113–14.Ghallab, M. (1994). Past and future chronicles for supervision and planning. In Jean  PaulHaton, editor, Proceedings of the 14th Int. Avignon Conference, Paris, EC2 and AFIA,pp23-34.Grimes, G. & Alley, B. (1997). Intelligent Agents for Network Fault Diagnosis and Testing.In Integrated Network Management V: inte grated management in a virtual world. SanDiego, California, USA, May 1997. IFIP, Chapman & Hall, pp.232-244.Guest, D. (1989). Personnel and HRM: Can you tell the difference? Personnel Management.St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, pp23-27.

Causes of the Salem Witch Craft Trials - 2052 Words

Since there never was a spurned lover stirring things up in Salem Village, and there is no evidence from the time that Tituba practiced Caribbean black magic, yet these trials and executions actually still took place, how can you explain why they occurred? The Salem Witchcraft Trials began not as an act of revenge against an ex-lover, as they did in The Crucible, but as series of seemingly unlinked, complex events, which a paranoid and scared group of people incorrectly linked. And while there were countless other witchcraft trials, Salemîâ€" ¸ trials remain the best-known. In Salem, fears of witchcraft perpetuated by popular writings were personified when two girls were said to be bewitched. A hysteria overcame the people of Salem, whose†¦show more content†¦That Little Betty Parris was sick, and that the Dr. Griggs (who was too proud to say that he could not diagnose Little Bettyîâ€" ¸ illness) claimed she was bewitched (Richardson 7), were enough reasons for court authorities to suspect witchcraft was the cause of the illness. In addition, several young girls in the village had participated in Ã¥ ¼Å½lack magic?experiments ?harmless adolescent games ?in the company of Tituba, Reverend Parrisîâ€" ¸ slave. The restless youn g girls allegedly met in Parrisîâ€" ¸ shed, and created and listened to Titubaîâ€" ¸ incredible tales of sorcery and black arts, which were doubtless an outlet for their repressed feelings. Soon, faulty cause-and-effect relationships sparked delirium. When the girls had fits of hysteria ?seizures, trance-like states, and sacrilegious screaming ?Parris called upon his colleagues to exorcise the demons that possessed the girls. Ministers from nearby communities met in Salem Village 懀o lead a public day of fasting and prayer, and to question the afflicted girls about what had caused their disturbing behavior?(8). Occasionally, the girls went mute or blind, choked, had muscle spasms, and had visions of frightening spirits. They claimed that evil spirits ursued them, threatening, biting, pinching, pricking, and performing other bodily injuries?(8). After that, public concern became mass hysteria. Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborne, were arrested and tried. Only Tituba confessed to signing the Devilîâ€" ¸ book.Show MoreRelatedSalem Witch Trials : A Part Of History1018 Words   |  5 PagesHistory 112 Dr. Patricia Hoskins May 20, 2016 Salem Witch Trials Like Slavery the Salem Witch Trials are a part of history that all would like to erase. In Salem Massachusetts the colonist were mostly made up of Puritans. Puritans were lead on the firm foundation that the Bible was, is and still the only word. This lead to the belief that this was the only way to convict, judge and execute those of a satanic faith, such as witch craft. The Salem Witch Trials were mostly conducted between the monthsRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of The Salem Witchcraft Trials1552 Words   |  7 Pages  Ã‚   The Massachusetts Salem witch craft trials, this was a complicated time in history.   With the conflict of the hangings, Salem didn’t have the best compromise. At a time in history when the government didn’t give Puritans religious rights, the Salem Massachusetts witch craft trials began. This conflict led to trails where the government convicted men and woman of practicing witch craft, thus being hanged. Though this compromise stopped the witch craft practicing, the government realized those menRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials Era1004 Words   |  5 PagesThree centuries ago authorities in and around Salem, Massachusetts engaged in a witch- hunt. 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The main reason the Puritan’s came to Salem was for freedom of religion which they did not haveRead MoreThe Crucible Analysis621 Words   |  3 PagesThe Crucible takes place in Salem, Massachusetts during the time of the Salem witch trials. In The Crucible, Arthur Miller uses revenge as the main theme throughout the playwright. Revenge is the action of inflicting hurt or harm on someone for an injury or wrong done to someone else. Revenge is shown throughout the characters actions in the play. Witch craft is used to represent revenge. If someone didnt like another, they co uld accuse that person of witch craft and inflict harm on him or herRead MoreThe Crucible By Arthur Miller1116 Words   |  5 PagesWhat the hell is going on in Salem? Everyday someone new is being accused of being a witch. No one is safe. Hide your kids; hide your wife, because they are accusing everyone around here. In the play, The Crucible, the Salem Witch Trials are taking place and many people are being falsely indicted of practicing witch craft. Thus, meaning many innocent individuals are being hanged because of the lies of four young girls. The Crucible, has many themes, but the most impactful one is hands down â€Å"PowerRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials1297 Words   |  6 PagesYou re a liar! I m no more a witch than you are a wizard! If you take my life away, God will give you blood to drink! (Sarah Good). To this day, there is still so much speculation on what was the actual cause of the hysteria that was the Salem Witch Trials. Were any of the women accused, like Sara h Good, actually practicing witchcraft? Or were the accusations placed on these women placed out of spite or jealousy? What caused these young women to have these strange symptoms in the first placeRead MoreThe Trials Of The Salem Witch Trials1635 Words   |  7 Pagesovercome was the Salem Witch Trials. The Salem Witch Trials occurred in 1692 and 1693 in colonial Massachusetts. â€Å"More than 200 people were accused of practicing witchcraft – the Devil’s magic – and 20 were executed† as detailed by Jess Blumberg on the web article A Brief History of the Salem Witch Trials (Blumberg 2007). The trials had a major impact on the American society and the effects could be seen in colonial America as well as today. Why did the injustice of the Salam Witch Trials occur and whyRead MoreExecuted For Witchcraft In 1692: Fourteen Women, Five Men1695 Words   |  7 Pagesend of the witch hunt: 19 innocents would be hung, 4 would die in prison and one man pressed to death. The Salem Witch trials is an event referred to today as the time-period where witches were burnt on the stake. Today, witches are featured in films and television with little to no fear publicly shown. But the witch hunts of the 1600’s would be a result of not only fear, but the hopes of gaining the attention of the public eye. The three major factors that influenced the Salem Witch Trials were fearRead MoreIs Witch Trails A Thing Of The Past?923 Words   |  4 Pages Being that the Salem Witch Trails date back to over three hundred years, many people believe witch trails are a thing of the past. However, modern day witch trails are still extremely prevalent. Modern-day witch-hunts are reported to still be happening in Afr ica, the Pacific, Latin America, even in the U.S. and Europe. According to a New York Times article, within the last fifteen years alone, more than 2,000 Indians have been killed after being accused of witchcraft. Almost all of the accused have